Chi You and the Yellow Emperor represent one of the great mytho-historical conflicts of ancient East Asian tradition. Chi You, often described as the leader of the Jiuli tribes, appears in early legends as a formidable warlord of the northern frontier—master of bronze weapons, fierce cavalry, and storm-like warfare. In later traditions, he became a symbol of the untamed strength of the steppe and the warrior world beyond the settled plains. Opposing him stood the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), revered in Chinese tradition as a culture hero and sovereign of early civilization, associated with order, statecraft, ritual, and the unification of the Central Plains. Their legendary clash came to symbolize more than a battle between rulers. It reflected the encounter between two worlds: the mobile frontier and the settled realm, chaos and order, the open horizon and the walled city. Though wrapped in myth, the story endured for millennia as a foundational memory of conflict, transformation, and the birth of a new political age beneath Heaven.
From Jiuli to Guifang traces the long transformation of the northern frontier world across roughly thirteen centuries of early East Asian history. Rather than a “Dark Age,” this era marked the gradual divergence of two great ways of life: the nomadic cultures of the steppe and the settled civilizations of the river valleys. From the legendary age of Jiuli and Chi You to the frontier confederations known as the Guifang in Shang records, the peoples of the north developed traditions of mobility, horsemanship, clan alliance, and warrior culture, while the south and central plains expanded agriculture, cities, ritual states, and written administration. It was an age not of darkness, but of formation—when the steppe and the sown earth followed different paths beneath the same Heaven.
Guifang (鬼方) was the name used in ancient Shang records for northern frontier tribes living beyond the agrarian centers of early China during the late Bronze Age (ca. 13th–11th century BCE). They were likely semi-nomadic and steppe-oriented peoples who lived across the northern plains, mountains, and frontier zones, sustained by herding, hunting, raiding, and mobile warfare rather than fixed agriculture. In oracle bone inscriptions of the Shang dynasty, the Guifang frequently appear as rivals and targets of military campaigns. Yet these records reflect the viewpoint of the settled kingdoms of the Central Plains. To history, the Guifang represent one of the earliest known frontier confederations of the northern steppe world—a society shaped by mobility, clan bonds, ancestral tradition, and life beneath the open sky.
Rong (戎) was a broad term used in ancient Chinese records for the tribal peoples of the western and northern frontiers during the late Zhou era. They were not a single tribe, but a constellation of semi-nomadic confederations living across the steppe, mountains, and borderlands beyond the Central Plains. Skilled in horsemanship, archery, and mobile warfare, the Rong became one of the greatest frontier powers of early China. In 771 BCE, the Quanrong—one branch of the Rong—helped bring about the fall of the Western Zhou by sacking Haojing, an event that reshaped the political order of ancient China. Though often described in ancient texts as “outsiders” or “barbarians,” the Rong were in truth influential peoples of the frontier world, standing between the steppe and the settled realms, and shaping the course of East Asian history.
771 BCE — The Sack of Haojing In 771 BCE, the Quanrong tribes of the northern frontier attacked and sacked Haojing, the capital of the Western Zhou dynasty. King You of Zhou was killed, and the old royal order collapsed. This event marked the end of the Western Zhou and the beginning of the Eastern Zhou era, a time of fragmentation, shifting alliances, and rising regional powers. More than the fall of a city, the sack of Haojing revealed the growing strength of the frontier peoples and the changing balance between the settled kingdoms and the northern steppe world.
Rong, Di, and Hu were broad frontier terms used in ancient Chinese records for the many tribal and semi-nomadic peoples living beyond the Central Plains during the Zhou era. Between the 8th and 5th centuries BCE, these confederations dominated vast regions of the northern steppes, western mountains, and frontier corridors. Though divided into many clans and tribes, they shared cultures shaped by mobility, horsemanship, archery, pastoral life, and warrior traditions. Rong (戎) were mainly associated with the western and northwestern frontiers. Di (狄) referred to northern tribal groups who frequently interacted, traded, and fought with Zhou states. Hu (胡) became a broader term for steppe peoples beyond the northern borders, later connected with the rising horse cultures of Inner Asia. To the settled kingdoms, they were often viewed as outsiders or frontier rivals. Yet historically, the Rong, Di, and Hu peoples played a major role in shaping warfare, frontier politics, cavalry traditions, and the balance of power in ancient East Asia. They were not merely tribes beyond the frontier—they were the living bridge between the steppe world and the civilizations of the Central Plains.
Rise of the Steppe Cavalry Age By the 4th century BCE, the peoples of the northern frontier had transformed the horse into the center of warfare, movement, and power. Across the great steppe, mounted archery, rapid mobility, and clan-based cavalry confederations reshaped the balance between the frontier world and the settled kingdoms of the south. This was not the birth of a new people, but the continuation of an older steppe tradition stretching back through the Rong, Di, Hu, and even the distant age of Jiuli and Guifang. Though names changed across centuries, the frontier world endured—bound by mobility, horsemanship, warrior culture, and life beneath the open sky. From these long-evolving steppe traditions would later emerge the great horse empires of Inner Asia, including the Xiongnu.
c. 3rd–2nd Century BCE — Rise of the Steppe Empires By the 3rd century BCE, the long-evolving peoples of the northern frontier entered a new age of unity and expansion. Across the great steppe, tribal confederations forged powerful cavalry states built upon mobility, horse archery, clan alliance, and control of the vast grasslands. From the older frontier traditions of the Rong, Di, Hu, and earlier steppe peoples emerged the great nomadic powers of Inner Asia, foremost among them the Xiongnu confederation. Under strong leaders such as Modu Chanyu, the steppe world became a major force shaping the politics, warfare, and trade of Eurasia. This was not the sudden appearance of a new civilization, but the culmination of centuries of frontier development stretching back to the age of Jiuli and Guifang. The horse, the bow, and the open steppe had become the foundation of empires.
Xiongnu Confederation (Hunnu) Founded in the late 3rd century BCE under Modu Chanyu, the Xiongnu became the first great empire of the Eurasian steppe. Uniting many tribes of the northern frontier, they forged a powerful cavalry confederation built upon mobility, horse archery, clan alliances, and control of the vast grasslands. To the Han dynasty, the Xiongnu were formidable rivals beyond the northern frontier. Yet historically, they represented the culmination of centuries of steppe development stretching back through the worlds of the Rong, Di, Hu, Guifang, and the older frontier traditions of Inner Asia. The rise of the Xiongnu marked the moment when the peoples of the steppe emerged not merely as tribes of the frontier, but as an imperial force capable of shaping the destiny of Eurasia.
The Xiongnu–Han Wars The Xiongnu–Han Wars were a long struggle between the Han dynasty and the Xiongnu Empire for control of the northern frontier, trade routes, and the steppe world. Fought from the 2nd century BCE into the 1st century CE, the conflict reshaped the balance of power across Inner Asia. The Han relied on fortified borders, large armies, and logistics, while the Xiongnu used mobility, horse archery, and deep cavalry raids across the steppe. Though often enemies, the two powers also exchanged goods, diplomacy, marriage alliances, and culture. More than a border war, the conflict marked a turning point in Eurasian history—where the agricultural empires of the south and the nomadic horse empires of the north struggled, adapted, and transformed one another.
Two Worlds. Two Orders. This artwork portrays the great confrontation between Modu Chanyu of the Xiongnu and the Han emperors of China — two powers born from entirely different worlds, yet bound together by centuries of war, diplomacy, and rivalry. On one side stood the steppe empire of the north: mobile, tribal, and built upon cavalry, mobility, and the freedom of the open grasslands. Under Modu Chanyu, the Xiongnu united the frontier tribes into a formidable imperial confederation that challenged the greatest states of East Asia. On the other stood the Han Empire: agricultural, centralized, and fortified by cities, walls, laws, and bureaucracy. The Han emperors sought stability, order, and secure borders against the rising power of the steppe. The conflict between them was more than a war between states—it was the meeting of two civilizations, two systems of power, and two visions of the world. From this struggle emerged new frontiers, new strategies, and a transformed Eurasia.
According to historical traditions recorded in the Shiji and Hanshu, Han general Huo Qubing launched rapid surprise campaigns against the Xiongnu during the 2nd century BCE. In one famous expedition, Han forces struck deep into Xiongnu territory, capturing sacred objects, ritual symbols, and imperial treasures connected to steppe worship and royal authority. Later interpretations and modern retellings sometimes describe these captured objects as “dragon totems” or sacred steppe emblems. While the original Chinese sources do not clearly state the exact form of these ritual objects, they suggest that the Xiongnu possessed important spiritual symbols tied to Heaven, tribal power, and ancestral worship. For the Han court, capturing such sacred objects was more than a military victory—it symbolized dominance over the northern frontier and the spiritual authority of the steppe confederation itself.
Modu Chanyu’s Letter to Empress Lü Zhi (192 BCE) According to the Book of Han (Hanshu, Volume 94, “Account of the Xiongnu”), Modu Chanyu sent a famous letter to Empress Dowager Lü Zhi after the death of Emperor Gaozu of Han. The letter was interpreted by the Han court as both a marriage proposal and a political provocation. A widely translated version reads: “I am a lonely ruler, born among marshes and raised upon the plains of cattle and horses. I have often reached the borders and wished to visit China. Your Majesty now lives alone in solitude, and I too dwell alone. Since neither of us finds joy, I am willing to exchange what I possess for what you lack.” The Han court was outraged. Some generals demanded immediate war against the Xiongnu, but the minister Ji Bu warned that the Xiongnu cavalry remained too powerful for the Han Empire to confront directly at that time. Empress Lü therefore answered diplomatically and avoided war. Primary source: Hanshu (Book of Han), Volume 94 — Xiongnu Zhuan (“Account of the Xiongnu”)
The first great ruler traditionally associated with the rise of the Xianbei was Tanshihuai (Tan Shihuai, c. 136–181 CE), the legendary leader who transformed the scattered Xianbei tribes into a powerful steppe confederation. According to the chronicles, Tanshihuai was born during a time when the northern tribes were divided and weak after the decline of the Xiongnu. From a young age, he was remembered as fierce, intelligent, and gifted in war and leadership. Steppe legends describe him as a man favored by Heaven, capable of uniting riders from distant lands beneath one standard. Under Tanshihuai, the Xianbei expanded across the Mongolian steppe, Manchuria, and the northern frontier. He reorganized the tribes, strengthened cavalry warfare, and established authority over vast territories stretching from the eastern forests to the Altai regions. Unlike the older Xiongnu imperial structure, the Xianbei confederation under Tanshihuai relied heavily on clan alliances, mobility, and military loyalty. His campaigns repeatedly challenged the Han frontier, and for a time the Xianbei became the dominant power of the northern steppe. To later generations, Tanshihuai was remembered as the ruler who carried the spirit of the steppe forward after the age of the Xiongnu — a new horse lord rising beneath Eternal Heaven.
The Rouran Khaganate After the rise of the Xianbei, the next great steppe empire was the Rouran Khaganate (c. 330–555 CE). The Rouran carried forward the imperial traditions of the northern steppe and became one of the most powerful nomadic empires of Inner Asia before the rise of the Göktürks. The Rouran are especially important in steppe history because they were among the first to widely use the imperial title “Khagan”, a title that later became famous across the Turkic and Mongol worlds. Under the Rouran Khagans: many northern tribes were united, cavalry power expanded across the steppe, trade and diplomacy connected Inner Asia, and the frontier states of northern China faced a new horse empire from the north. Their dominion stretched across Mongolia and the eastern steppes, ruling through mobility, tribal alliances, military power, and the authority of the Khagan beneath Eternal Heaven. The Rouran age became a bridge between the older Xiongnu–Xianbei world and the later Göktürk empires that would transform Eurasia.
Yujiulü Shelun — First Great Khagan of the Rouran Yujiulü Shelun was the founder and first great ruler of the Rouran Khaganate, which rose across the Mongolian steppe during the late 4th century CE. Emerging from the northern nomadic tribes after the decline of earlier steppe confederations, Shelun united many scattered peoples into a powerful horse empire. He is historically significant for establishing one of the earliest steppe states to use the imperial title “Khagan,” a title later adopted by many Turkic and Mongol empires across Eurasia. According to historical accounts, Shelun rose to power through years of tribal conflict, exile, and warfare. After securing leadership, he reorganized the Rouran tribes into a stronger military confederation built upon cavalry, mobility, loyalty, and centralized authority beneath the Khagan. Under his rule, the Rouran expanded their influence across Inner Asia, dominated important steppe routes, and became a major power confronting the northern Chinese dynasties. The rise of Yujiulü Shelun marked the beginning of a new imperial age on the steppe — an era in which nomadic confederations evolved into organized empires capable of shaping the history of Eurasia.
The Meaning of “Kök Türk” — The Heavenly Türeg. The name “Kök Türeg” was the original self-designation of the steppe empire that ruled Inner Asia between 552–744 CE. In ancient steppe usage, the word “Kök” carried meanings such as sky, heavenly, eternal, high, and ancient. Thus, the name may be understood as: “The Heavenly Türeg” or “The Türeg of the Eternal Blue Sky.” Among the nomadic peoples of Inner Asia, the blue sky symbolized Tengri — the Eternal Heaven worshipped across the steppe world. By calling themselves the “Kök Türeg,” the ruling clans declared that their authority came from Heaven itself and that their empire ruled beneath the protection of Tengri. The word “Kök” also conveyed the sense of something ancient, original, or primordial. In this meaning, the title emphasized the identity of the ruling Türeg tribes as the ancestral and true peoples of the steppe tradition. The ruling Ashina clan emerged from the Altai regions of Inner Asia, among frontier ironworking peoples long associated with the Mongol Altai. Historical traditions describe these tribes as renowned blacksmiths, horsemen, and masters of iron who forged weapons and cavalry equipment for the steppe world. Under Bumin Qaghan and his successors, the Kök Türeg Khaganate rose after the fall of the Rouran and became one of the greatest horse empires of Eurasia. Their dominion stretched across the vast grasslands of Inner Asia, shaping trade, warfare, diplomacy, and imperial culture beneath Eternal Heaven.
The name “Buman” is notable because, in both ancient and modern Mongolian usage, it preserves the meaning of a great multitude or vast number — often associated with the idea of “one hundred thousand.” The name carries the symbolic sense of immense strength, abundance, and military power. Historical traditions also connect the early Göktürks with the ironworking tribes of the Mongol Altai. Among Mongolian peoples, these groups were long remembered as türeg or steppe blacksmith clans — renowned for metalwork, weapons, cavalry equipment, and mastery of iron. From these frontier ironworking peoples emerged the ruling Ashina lineage that later built the Göktürk Empire. Originally subjects of the Rouran, the Göktürks gained power through cavalry warfare, iron production, and control of the steppe trade routes. After conflict with the Rouran rulers, Bumin revolted and defeated them in 552 CE, proclaiming himself Qaghan and establishing the first great Turkic empire. Under Bumin and his successors, the Göktürk Khaganate expanded across Mongolia and Central Asia, becoming one of the dominant powers of the Eurasian steppe. Their rise marked the beginning of a new imperial era beneath Eternal Heaven — an age of mounted empires, iron, mobility, and frontier power.
Bilge Khagan — The Wise Ruler of the Kök Türeg Bilge Khagan (d. 734 CE) was the great Khagan of the Kök Türeg Empire and one of the most celebrated rulers of the Inner Asian steppe. He ruled from 716 CE until his death, leading the restoration of the Turkic Khaganate alongside his brother Kül Tegin and the renowned strategist Tonyukuk. The name “Bilge” literally means “wise,” “intelligent,” or “possessing wisdom.” The word remains preserved in the Mongolian language today as bileg or bilig, referring to wisdom, intellect, knowledge, and a wise person. His title therefore carried the meaning of a ruler guided not only by military strength, but by understanding and statecraft. Bilge Khagan is remembered through the great inscriptions of the Orkhon Valley, among the oldest surviving monumental texts of the steppe world. In these inscriptions, he honored his younger brother Kül Tegin, whose name is often interpreted through the idea of the heroic or mighty rider — a mounted warrior of extraordinary courage and loyalty. The Orkhon monuments describe Kül Tegin as the shield and sword of the empire, a horse-mounted hero who fought to reunite the tribes beneath Eternal Heaven. Bilge Khagan’s inscriptions mourn his brother deeply, portraying him not merely as a commander, but as the defender of the people and the foundation of the Khaganate’s strength. Within these stone records, Bilge Khagan warned the steppe peoples against division, foreign dependence, and the loss of ancestral traditions. He declared that when the tribes remained united beneath Tengri, the steppe prospered; when divided, they fell into weakness and subjugation. Under Bilge Khagan, the Kök Türeg Empire once again became one of the dominant powers of Inner Asia — a realm of horsemen, iron, memory, wisdom, and Eternal Heaven.
ANCESTORS OF HUMANITY
Lodongiin Tudev once said that the history of the Mongols should not begin only with the Xiongnu. It began many thousands of years earlier.
Archaeological evidence shows that as far back as 15,000 years ago, nomadic culture had already taken shape. Stone Age campsites, along with rock paintings depicting hunting culture, have been discovered in Bayankhongor, Govi-Altai, Khovd, and Arkhangai. These findings demonstrate that ways of life such as hunting, animal domestication, and seasonal migration existed in the Mongolian lands from very early times.
Therefore, the Xiongnu were a continuation of nomadic culture that had developed over thousands of years. We Mongols must not think of our history as something short or recent.
The peoples listed here were regarded by the ancestors of the Chinese as constant enemies—dangerous and formidable. They were often slandered and labeled as “barbaric” in historical records. Yet, those very enemies whom they feared were, in fact, the ancestors of our Xiongnu.
Although excavations of the Botai culture (around 3700 BCE) uncovered the remains of about 7,000 horses—proving the existence of mounted nomads—the history of that time remains too obscure. Therefore, I will begin slightly later, presenting a list from the period of the Jiuli tribal confederation up to the era of the Xiongnu.
Chronological List
1. Jiuli (Confederation of Nine Tribes)
2600 BCE – 2300 BCE
According to Chinese legends, they were described as nomadic hostile enemies.
2. 2300 BCE – 1300 BCE (Dark Age)
This period is historically unclear. Some historians mention a people called “Melkhi,” but this remains insufficiently studied.
3. Guifang State
1300 BCE – 900 BCE
A nomadic confederation. After their decline, groups such as the Scythians, Massagetae, and the one-eyed Arimaspi migrated westward toward Europe.
4. Xianyun
1000 BCE – 700 BCE
A state that united remnants of the Guifang along with the Run and Di tribes.
5. Di
900 BCE – 800 BCE
A confederation consisting of Northern Di, Red Di, White Di, and Long Di tribes.
6. Jung Run (Zhongrong)
800 BCE – 700 BCE
A confederation including Lu Zhong, Mountain Rong, Dog Rong, and Western Rong tribes.
7. Beidi (Northern Di)
700 BCE – 300 BCE
A union of seven tribes, including the Mon and Di.
8. Northern Xiongnu
340 BCE – 209 BCE
A confederation of 24 tribes that united parts of the Beidi and most of the Jung Run.
9. Xiongnu Empire
209 BCE – 93 CE
A great empire that unified 36 states, including the powerful Donghu (Eastern Hu) and the western Yuezhi.
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1. Jiuli — Confederation of Nine Tribes
2600 BCE – 2300 BCE
In the dim twilight of the earliest ages, before the lines of history were firmly drawn, there arose the Jiuli—a confederation of nine tribes bound together by blood, oath, and the harsh will of survival.
They are remembered in ancient accounts as the people of Chi You, a warlike chieftain whose name echoes through legend as both feared and revered. Across the fertile yet contested lands of the Yellow River, they stood as relentless adversaries to Huangdi, clashing in battles that later generations would elevate into myth.
These lands—where river meets steppe, and where the winds of the north descend upon the plains—would in later ages become the southern sphere of the Xiongnu Empire, the very frontier where the steppe world pressed against the settled realms.
Though the records that speak of them are veiled in legend rather than grounded in firm archaeological proof, many scholars see within the Jiuli the shadow of early steppe-born peoples—proto-nomads whose lives were shaped by movement, conflict, and the open land.
👉 Key point: One of the earliest known large tribal confederations, possibly representing the proto-nomadic origins of steppe civilizations, in a region that later became part of the Xiongnu sphere.2. The Dark Age (Melkhi?)
2300 BCE – 1300 BCE
A long silence falls upon the written memory of this age—not because human life had diminished, but because no voices were preserved in script. This so-called “Dark Age” reflects not an absence of culture, but an absence of recorded history.
Archaeology, however, speaks where texts remain silent. Across the steppe and forest-steppe zones of Inner Asia, cultures such as the Afanasievo culture, Okunevo culture, and Andronovo culture reveal a dynamic and evolving world.
During this period, key developments took place:
The rise of early Bronze Age metallurgy
The expansion of pastoral nomadis
The establishment of seasonal migration pattern
Increasing social organization among steppe communities
In other words, by this time, the fundamental structures of nomadic life—herding, mobility, and adaptation to the степpe—were already firmly in place.
Some later interpretations refer to a people called the Melkhi, yet this name remains hypothetical and insufficiently supported by archaeological or textual evidence, existing only at the margins of scholarship.
Thus, this age was not a void, but a hidden continuum—an unbroken development of steppe culture that would later give rise to powerful tribal confederations, including those that preceded the Xiongnu.
Key point: Not a true “dark age,” but a gap in written records—while nomadic civilization continued to develop steadily through archaeological cultures. 3. Guifang — Lords of the Northern Frontier
1300 BCE – 900 BCE
From the silence of the preceding age, the Guifang emerge—not from myth alone, but from the earliest written records of neighboring civilizations. In the oracle bones and inscriptions of the Shang dynasty, their name appears as that of a persistent and formidable northern enemy.
They were not a single tribe, but a confederation of mobile steppe peoples, dwelling beyond the settled agricultural world. Their strength lay in movement: mounted warfare, seasonal migration, and the ability to strike swiftly across vast distances. To the Shang, they were both a threat and a constant presence along the northern frontier.
Archaeological and historical interpretations suggest that the Guifang belonged to the broader continuum of early steppe cultures that had been developing since the Bronze Age. Their way of life—pastoral, mobile, and war-oriented—reflects a mature form of nomadic society rather than an emerging one.
Following the decline of the Guifang, the steppe world did not fragment into silence. Instead, its peoples dispersed and transformed. Some scholars propose that elements of these northern groups contributed to the westward movements that would later be associated with the Scythians and the Massagetae, while others remained in Inner Asia, continuing the line of development that would lead toward later confederations.Thus, the Guifang stand not as an isolated people, but as a visible moment in a longer continuum—the steppe world beginning to enter the written record.
Key point: One of the earliest historically attested nomadic confederations, marking the transition from prehistoric steppe cultures to recorded history.---
1300 BCE – 900 BCE
From the silence of the preceding age, the Guifang emerge—not from myth alone, but from the earliest written records of neighboring civilizations. In the oracle bones and inscriptions of the Shang dynasty, their name appears as that of a persistent and formidable northern enemy.
They were not a single tribe, but a confederation of mobile steppe peoples, dwelling beyond the settled agricultural world. Their strength lay in movement: mounted warfare, seasonal migration, and the ability to strike swiftly across vast distances. To the Shang, they were both a threat and a constant presence along the northern frontier.
Archaeological and historical interpretations suggest that the Guifang belonged to the broader continuum of early steppe cultures that had been developing since the Bronze Age. Their way of life—pastoral, mobile, and war-oriented—reflects a mature form of nomadic society rather than an emerging one.
Following the decline of the Guifang, the steppe world did not fragment into silence. Instead, its peoples dispersed and transformed. Some scholars propose that elements of these northern groups contributed to the westward movements that would later be associated with the Scythians and the Massagetae, while others remained in Inner Asia, continuing the line of development that would lead toward later confederations.Thus, the Guifang stand not as an isolated people, but as a visible moment in a longer continuum—the steppe world beginning to enter the written record.
Key point: One of the earliest historically attested nomadic confederations, marking the transition from prehistoric steppe cultures to recorded history.---
1000 BCE – 700 BCE
As the memory of the Guifang fades from the record, another name rises in its place—the Xianyun. In the chronicles of the Zhou dynasty, they appear not as strangers, but as the continuing presence of the northern world: shifting, resilient, and ever beyond the reach of fixed borders.
The Xianyun were not a sudden people, but the inheritors of earlier steppe traditions. They are often understood as the successors to the Guifang, gathering together remnants of older groups—among them the Run and the Di—and forging new alliances upon the open grasslands.
Their way of life reflects a fully developed nomadic system. Mobility, pastoral wealth, and mounted warfare defined their strength. They did not build cities, yet they shaped the course of kingdoms. Their raids and pressures upon the Zhou frontier were not isolated events, but part of a long-standing dynamic between the settled south and the mobile north.
In this age, the pattern becomes clearer: tribal fragmentation followed by reunification, decline followed by resurgence. The steppe does not vanish—it reorganizes.
For this reason, many scholars view the Xianyun as part of the direct cultural and political lineage that would, in later centuries, give rise to the Xiongnu. Though the connection is not absolute, the continuity of structure, lifeway, and geopolitical role is unmistakable.
Thus, the Xianyun stand as a bridge between the early recorded nomads and the great confederations yet to come—a living link in the unbroken chain of steppe civilization.
Key point: A successor confederation continuing the steppe tradition, often regarded as a precursor within the broader lineage leading toward the Xiongnu.
900 BCE – 800 BCE
In the shifting tapestry of the steppe and its borderlands, the name Di does not belong to a single people, but to many. In the records of the Zhou dynasty, the Di appear as a broad designation—an assembly of tribes whose identities were as varied as the lands they roamed.
They were known in divisions: the Northern Di, the Red Di, the White Di, and the Long Di. Each bore its own character, yet all were bound by a shared lifeway shaped by movement, herding, and the demands of the frontier.
Unlike the fully nomadic confederations of later centuries, the Di often lived between worlds. Some practiced seasonal migration across the steppe, while others settled temporarily along river valleys and border regions. They traded, they raided, and at times, they entered into alliances with the states of the Zhou realm. Thus, they were neither wholly outside nor fully within the sphere of the agrarian civilizations to the south.
In this period, the boundary between steppe and settled land was not a fixed line, but a wide and shifting zone of interaction. The Di inhabited this frontier space, where cultures met, clashed, and intertwined.
Though divided into many branches, the Di represent a crucial stage in the evolution of steppe societies. From such diversity would later emerge stronger unions—confederations capable of uniting scattered tribes into a single political force.
Key point: A diverse and multi-branch group of frontier tribes, representing a transitional stage between fragmented peoples and later unified nomadic confederations.800 BCE – 700 BCE
Along the shifting edges of the known world, where the ordered lands of the south gave way to the vast and uncertain steppe, there arose the peoples known as the Jung Run—called Rong in the chronicles of the Zhou dynasty.
This name did not belong to a single tribe, but to many: the Lu Zhong, the Mountain Rong, the Dog Rong, and the Western Rong. To the scribes of the Zhou, they were grouped together as outsiders—yet in truth, they were diverse communities bound by a shared frontier existence.
The Jung Run lived in a world of movement and adaptation. Some roamed the highlands and valleys, others the open степpe, but all were shaped by a life that required strength, mobility, and resilience. Their society was not unified under a single ruler, but formed through loose alliances—temporary, shifting, yet capable of great force when brought together.
In this age, their presence was not merely peripheral. The pressure they exerted upon the Zhou realm grew steadily, and in time, their incursions would contribute to the weakening of the western order itself. The frontier was no longer a distant boundary—it had become a line of constant tension.
Yet, as with those before them, the Jung Run were not an isolated phenomenon. They were part of the same enduring pattern of the steppe: fragmentation and union, dispersal and return. From such peoples would emerge the conditions necessary for greater political consolidation.
Thus, the Jung Run stand as the keepers of the frontier—neither fully inside nor entirely beyond, but essential to the transformation of the steppe world
Key point: A broad frontier confederation of Rong tribes whose pressure on early states helped shape the political landscape and continued the evolution toward larger nomadic unions7. Beidi — The Northern Confederation
700 BCE – 300 BCE
From the many branches of the Di and the scattered peoples of the frontier, a greater formation began to take shape—the Beidi, known as the Northern Di. No longer merely divided tribes, they emerged as a broader confederation, gathering strength across the northern степpe and its borderlands.
In the turbulent era remembered as the Warring States period, the Beidi stood as a constant presence along the northern horizons of the competing states. Their movements were swift, their strikes sudden, and their knowledge of the land unmatched. To the settled kingdoms, they were not a distant threat, but an immediate and enduring challenge.
It was in response to such northern powers that the first great defensive measures began to rise—walls of earth and stone, built not as monuments, but as barriers against the степpe. These early fortifications, raised by various states, marked the beginning of a long struggle between mobility and permanence, between the open land and the enclosed realm.
Yet the Beidi were more than adversaries. They were the inheritors of a long lineage—drawing together elements of earlier Di and Rong groups, shaping them into a more cohesive force. The process of unification had advanced further: alliances grew stronger, leadership more defined, and the idea of a larger political entity began to take hold.
Thus, the Beidi stand at a turning point in steppe history. From their ranks, and from the patterns they embodied, would soon arise even greater unions—those capable of transforming confederation into empire.
Key point: A major northern confederation representing an advanced stage of tribal unification, directly preceding the emergence of the Xiongnu.
7. Beidi — The Northern Confederation
700 BCE – 300 BCE
From the many branches of the Di and the scattered peoples of the frontier, a greater formation began to take shape—the Beidi, known as the Northern Di. No longer merely divided tribes, they emerged as a broader confederation, gathering strength across the northern степpe and its borderlands.
In the turbulent era remembered as the Warring States period, the Beidi stood as a constant presence along the northern horizons of the competing states. Their movements were swift, their strikes sudden, and their knowledge of the land unmatched. To the settled kingdoms, they were not a distant threat, but an immediate and enduring challenge.
It was in response to such northern powers that the first great defensive measures began to rise—walls of earth and stone, built not as monuments, but as barriers against the степpe. These early fortifications, raised by various states, marked the beginning of a long struggle between mobility and permanence, between the open land and the enclosed realm.
Yet the Beidi were more than adversaries. They were the inheritors of a long lineage—drawing together elements of earlier Di and Rong groups, shaping them into a more cohesive force. The process of unification had advanced further: alliances grew stronger, leadership more defined, and the idea of a larger political entity began to take hold.
Thus, the Beidi stand at a turning point in steppe history. From their ranks, and from the patterns they embodied, would soon arise even greater unions—those capable of transforming confederation into empire.
Key point: A major northern confederation representing an advanced stage of tribal unification, directly preceding the emergence of the Xiongnu.
8. Northern Xiongnu — The Gathering of the Tribes
340 BCE – 209 BCE
From the long evolution of the steppe—through the Di, the Rong, and the Beidi—there emerged a new and more formidable unity: the early formation of the Xiongnu.
This was not yet the empire that would later shake the world, but its foundation—the Northern Xiongnu, a confederation of twenty-four tribes drawn together from the scattered peoples of the степpe. From the Beidi they inherited strength, from the Jung Run resilience, and from the deeper past the enduring patterns of nomadic life.
In this age, something fundamental began to change.
No longer were alliances merely temporary or fluid. Leadership grew more centralized, authority more defined, and the bonds between tribes strengthened under the pressure of both internal competition and external threat. The steppe, long a land of shifting unions, was beginning to move toward a more enduring political order.
Mounted warfare reached new levels of coordination. Communication across distances improved. The idea of unity—once fleeting—began to take root as necessity.
Though the name “Xiongnu” would later be known in its full power, here we witness its earliest formation: a gathering of tribes into a single will, a storm not yet unleashed, but already building across the horizon.
Thus, the Northern Xiongnu stand as the threshold between confederation and empire—the final transformation before the rise of a force that would reshape the balance between steppe and settled world.
Key point: The transitional phase in which fragmented steppe tribes united into a centralized confederation, laying the foundation for the Xiongnu Empire.
9. The Xiongnu Empire — Lords of the Eternal Steppe
209 BCE – 93 CE
At last, from the long gathering of tribes and the unbroken current of the степpe, there arose a power unlike any before it—the Xiongnu Empire.
Its true beginning is marked by the rise of Modu Chanyu, a ruler of iron will who transformed a fragile confederation into a unified empire. Through discipline, strategy, and relentless resolve, he brought the степpe under a single command, binding together tribes that had long stood apart.
Under his rule, and those who followed, the Xiongnu expanded into a vast dominion—uniting no fewer than thirty-six tribes and allied states. Their power stretched across the great grasslands, from the forests of the north to the edges of the desert, and from the rising lands of the east to the distant reaches of the west.
They were not merely raiders, as their enemies would later claim, but masters of a sophisticated system:
A structured political hierarchy under the Chanyu
A highly organized military based on mobility and speed
A diplomatic network balancing war, alliance, and tribute
Their greatest rival was the Han dynasty, with whom they waged both war and negotiation across generations. Around them stood other powerful peoples—the Donghu in the east and the Yuezhi in the west—yet the Xiongnu rose above them, forging dominance across Inner Asia.
Here, the long evolution of the steppe reached its first great culmination. What had once been scattered tribes became an empire; what had once been survival became strategy; what had once been movement became power.
And though the empire would, in time, divide and fade, its legacy would endure—echoing through the later peoples of the степpe, and shaping the very idea of nomadic empire for centuries to come.
Key point: The first great nomadic empire, representing the full political, military, and cultural maturation of the steppe tradition.A 4800-Year Continuum of Steppe Civilization
Rise of the Steppes
Khans and Commanders
From the legendary rulers of the Jiuli to Tumen Chanyu, Chinggis Khan, and modern Mongolia, steppe leadership evolved through unity, strategy, and conquest.
Neighbours and Rivals
From early tribal conflicts to encounters with China, Persia, and Rome, the steppe shaped Eurasia through war and exchange.
From Jiuli to Modern Mongolia
Tracing the political evolution of the steppe from early tribal confederations to the modern Mongolian state.
Early Conferderations
2600–700 BCE Jiuli, Guifang, Xianyun, Di Early tribal unions that shaped the foundation of steppe civilization.
Juilu Confederation
The Jiuli Confederation (also known as the “Nine Li Tribes”) was an ancient tribal alliance believed to have existed around 2600 BCE in early Chinese history and mythology.
👤 Leadership
The confederation is traditionally associated with Chiyou, a powerful tribal leader known for his strength and military skill.
⚔️ Historical Significance
- The Jiuli are best known for their conflict with the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi)
- This conflict culminated in the legendary Battle of Zhuolu, where the Yellow Emperor defeated Chiyou
- The event is often considered a foundational myth in the formation of early Chinese civilization
🏛️ Cultural Role
- The Jiuli are sometimes described as a distinct cultural or ethnic group in ancient China
- In later traditions, they are linked to southern tribes and occasionally to the ancestors of certain ethnic minorities
⚡ Quick Summary
- 📅 Around 2600 BCE
- 🧑🤝🧑 Tribal alliance known as the Nine Li (Jiuli)
- 👤 Led by Chiyou
- ⚔️ Defeated by the Yellow Emperor at the Battle of Zhuolu
- 🏛️ Important in early Chinese mytho-historical tradition
Proto-Steppe Horizon
- Jiuli Confederation (九黎)
2600 – 1300 BCE (legendary–protohistoric) - Guifang / Early Northern Groups
1300 – 1000 BCE - Xianyun Confederation
1000 – 700 BCE - Rong–Di Complex (incl. Beidi)
900 – 300 BCE Early Steppe State Formation
- Proto-Xiongnu Confederations
400 – 209 BCE - Xiongnu Empire
209 BCE – 93 CE
- Proto-Xiongnu Confederations
Steppe Empires
209 BCE – 1368 CE Xiongnu, Turkic Khaganates, Mongol Empire The rise of centralized power and the greatest nomadic empires.
Xiongnu Successor Complex (Critical Transitional Layer)
- Xianbei Confederation
93 – 234 CE - Tuoba / Tabgach Xianbei (proto-state phase)
~200 – 386 - Tuoba Wei (Northern Wei Dynasty)
386 – 534 - Steppe Imperial Continuity
- Rouran Khaganate
330 – 552 - Göktürk Khaganate
552 – 744 - Uyghur Khaganate
744 – 840
Para-Mongolic Transitional Empires
- Khitan (Liao Dynasty)
907 – 1125 - Kara Khitan (Western Liao)
1124 – 1218 - Khamag Mongol Confederation
1000 – 1206
Mongol Imperial System
- Mongol Empire
1206 – 1368 - Монголын Юань гүрэн
1271 – 1368
Modern
1368 CE – Present Post-imperial transition to modern Mongolia Continuation of steppe identity into the modern state.
Mongol Ulus System (Successor Khanates)
- Golden Horde (Алтан орд)
1240s – 1502 - Blue Horde (Хөх орд)
1240s – 1370s - White Horde (Цагаан орд)
1240s – 1428 - Chagatai Khanate (Цагаадайн улс)
1225 – 1680s - Ilkhanate (Ил хаант улс)
1256 – 1335
Turco-Mongol Continuity Layer
- Timurid Empire
1370 – 1507 - Moghulistan / Moghul Khanate
1347 – 1700s - Mughal Empire
1526 – 1857
Mongol Homeland Continuity
- Northern Yuan (Umard Yuan)
1368 – 1635 - Oirat Confederation (Dörvön Oirat)
1400s – 1758 - Eastern Mongol Khanates (Khalkha, Chahar)
1400s – 1635
Qing Period
- Qing Dynasty (Монгол дотор)
1636 – 1911
Modern Mongolia
- Bogd Khanate of Mongolia
1911 – 1924 - Mongolian People’s Republic
1924 – 1992- Mongolia (modern state)
1992 – Present
- Mongolia (modern state)